Let me start at the top, the rulers.  The Middle East is largely a collection of monarchies, where one family runs the country.  So who is at the top:  king, sultan, sheikh, caliph, shah or emir?  There are distinctions, and they've changed with time: Either Arabic or Islamic or Royal. Religion or politics. Highest religious and political authority:  Caliph. The word means successor, or, in other words, successor to the Prophet Muhammad. A bit of history:  Caliph ruled from who knows when to 1258 in Baghdad and 1517 in Egypt until Ottoman Sultans overcame. Then in 1924 Ataturk prevailed. Emir:  a provincial delegate. A Sultan is the highest civil authority, such as in Oman and Brunei, or the equivalent in many countries, King.  In other words, a Sultan is the King of an Islamic state. A Sheikh is the religious or political head of Muslims. To the right,  Sheikh Zayed of UAE and Sultan Qaboos of Oman. If that didn't confuse you, let me try to ...